To Make a Spotless Orange: Biological Control in California
Richard Sawyer. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1996.

Reviewed by Matt Hall, Institute of Anthropology, University of North Texas.

    In To Make a Spotless Orange, Richard Sawyer provides a lucid and readable account of
the development of biological control methods in the fight against agricultural pests.  While the
focus is on the citrus industry of California, Sawyer gives a sense of perspective to the work by
providing examples of the state of biological control (or lack thereof) in other states, such as
Hawaii and Florida.  This allows comparisons to be made between California and other states,
thus giving an idea of the uniqueness of the California citrus-growing culture.

    Beginning with the control of cottony-cushion scale (Icerya puchasi) in 1889, Sawyer
traces the high and low points in attempts to control pests through the introduction of another
predatory insect.  While it would be many years before biological control had another resounding
success such as it had in 1889, the method was pursued by the California citrus industry with
increasing fervor.  Throughout the book Sawyer is meticulous in providing background
information about the principal actors and institutions involved in biological control, as well as the
interplay between them.  One telling example is that of Paul DeBach and his relationship with
Sunkist Growers, Inc. In 1970, DeBach called for relaxation of Sunkist's policy of blemish-free
fruit.  According to Sunkist, this is the only way for California to maintain its hold on the citrus
market in the United States.  This policy was also responsible for many setbacks and
shortcomings of biological control methods, which were often only partly successful in producing
spotless fruit.  DeBach, an economic entomologist, held that relaxing these standards would
broaden the applicability of biological control methods.  Throughout the book, Sawyer details
antagonisms such as these between citrus growers, entomologists, and governmental agencies that
at times have hindered the implementation of natural methods of pest control.  Also discussed are
possible reasons why biological control was not pursued in more areas of the United States.
Here, Sawyer cites the immediate and somewhat guaranteed results of chemical pesticides,
coupled with the often disappointing results of natural control methods, as being one major cause
of the discrepancy.  Sawyer is also careful to point out that the reasons for biological control
methods were not ecologically minded, as they may at first appear.  Throughout the book, he
reminds the reader that the research performed by economic entomologists was largely paid for by
the citrus industry in California.  What the growers wanted was spotless fruit for the smallest
overall investment.  The economic theory behind biological control was based on the assumption
that, once established, natural enemies of citrus pests would not need to be reapplied. This stands
in contrast to the need for repeated application of chemical insecticides.  Therefore, long-term
economic considerations, and not ecological concerns, were the driving motivation behind this
research.

    Sawyer does not just discuss the agricultural and scientific aspects of biological control.
Political, business, and ecological aspects are also brought into the discussion.  As a historian of
science, Sawyer also makes the dynamic interplay between science and technology a major focus.
He discusses when science and basic theory have driven control efforts, the actual engineering
aspect of biological control. Sawyer also looks at when engineering leads to major theoretical
breakthroughs, such as the discovery of the trigger for winter diapause in Macrocentrus.  By
exploring this interplay between fundamental science and practical application of science, Sawyer
makes the book relevant to scholars outside of agriculture.  The book is especially relevant to
anthropologists because, through Sawyer's holistic approach to the subject, comparisons can be
made between the California citrus growing culture and the citrus culture of other regions.
 In To Make a Spotless Orange, Sawyer presents a meticulous and even-handed account of
the historical development of biological control.  His carefully researched and richly detailed
analysis provides insight into the background of the actors, institutions, and events.  He does all
this without taking a judgmental stance.  Sawyer presents the good and bad side of methods of
biological control, and discusses the underlying reason why natural methods were pursued with
such fervor in the California citrus industry.